Critiquing
Contents
Starting points for critiquing
A critiquing technique
Comparing and contrasting
Starting
points for critiquing
Whenever you wish to form a critical opinion about
something (a television show, a movie, a journal article, a text book, a
research study), try asking yourself the following questions:
·
What
is this? What is it all about?
·
Does
it work? If so, on what grounds? If not, why not?
·
How
was it achieved? Was this the best possible way?
·
Who
is saying/presenting it and what authority do they have (what do they know
about it)?
·
Is
it significant? What use is it?
·
Why
is it significant? Who says so?
·
What
is its context? Do any contextual factors change your views about it?
·
How
good is it? On what criteria?
·
How
valid is it? What inconsistencies or unsubstantiated claims to you see?
·
How
reliable is the evidence in support of it?
·
What
has been gained by it?
·
What
do the authors say about it?
·
Are
they right?
·
How
does it contribute to the human condition?
·
So
what?
Write a paragraph about any
topic, in which the primary aim is to answer as many of the above questions as
you can. Write in continuous prose, and clearly indicate the subject matter
with a clear topic sentence.
........................................................................................………………………..............
........................................................................................………………………..............
........................................................................................………………………..............
........................................................................................………………………..............
........................................................................................………………………..............
........................................................................................………………………..............
........................................................................................………………………..............
........................................................................................………………………..............
........................................................................................………………………..............
........................................................................................………………………..............
A critiquing technique
Like
some forms of summarising, critiquing is a form of indirect reporting - that
is, you observe something and you relate or explain it to someone else as if
they are hearing about it for the first time through you. In the case of
critiquing, your readers are given the added dimension of your interpretation
and opinion, so they do not get a 'neutral' report as they would with a
summary.
Depending
on the 'voice' you use (paraphrasing, reporting or quoting), and the degree of
'author orientation', you can imply a great deal about your own position by
selecting from a wide range of verbs to write about other authors. (See the
planning sheets for 'Voice' in the downloadable Word 6 file and on the Web
under 'Academic writing skills: Writing about the work of other authors:
Voice'.
Jones (claims, asserts, agrees,
suggests, states, theorises, argues, denies, refutes) that ...
See
how, in the above statement, these words give a subtly different flavour to how
you introduce Jones and his ideas.
The
following is an extract from the Review of Literature chapter in the thesis of [1]
Nualnetr (1996)
Age-related decreases in total number of muscle
fibres were demonstrated in both type 1 (slow-twitch) and type 11 (fast twitch)
fibres (Lexell et al 1983 and 1988). However, a reduction in muscle fibre size
with increasing age appears in type 11 muscle fibres, whilst type 1 fibres are
much less affected (Essen-Gustavsson and Borges 1986, Jakobsson et all 1990,
Larsson et al 1978, Lexell and Taylor 1991, Scelsi et al 1980, Tomonaga 1977).
After seven years of their longitudinal study of older subjects, Aniansson et
al (1986) showed 14 per cent to 25 per cent reduction in the type 11 fibre area,
and no significant change in the type 1 fibre area. They also found that muscle
strength losses were accompanied by decreases in type 11 fibre area. It should
be noted that the muscle examined by the majority of these studies was the
vastus lateralis. It therefore remains to be determined whether the same
changes in muscle morphology occur in other muscles.
Try
each of the following verbs of indirect
reporting in a sentence about one or
more of the authors in Nualtr's paragraph. Or you may prefer to enter some
authors from your own readings whose statements you find more appropriate to
the given verbs.
The
first two are given as examples:
Nualtr
(1996) points out that, while most previous studies had examined the vastus
lateralis muscle, the effects of ageing on other muscles was still open to
investigation.
Aniansson
et al (1986) affirm that no significant change occurs with ageing in the type 1
fibre area.
……………… insists that
..............................................................…………………….............
……………… agrees that
............................................................…………………….............
……………… asserts that
..............................................................…………………….............
……………… remarks that ..............................................................…………………….............
……………… claims that
..............................................................…………………….............
……………… adds that
..............................................................…………………….............
……………… reports that
..............................................................…………………….............
……………… disagrees that
..............................................................…………………….............
……………… doubts that
.............................................................................
……………… emphasises that
..............................................................……………………............
……………… maintains that
..............................................................…………………….............
……………… indicates that
..............................................................…………………….............
……………… shows that
..............................................................…………………….............
……………… proves that
..............................................................…………………….............
……………… finds that
..............................................................…………………….............
……………… stresses that
..............................................................…………………….............
……………… feels that
.............................................................…………………….............
………………warns that
..............................................................…………………….............
……………… concludes that
..............................................................…………………….............
Jones (1997) …………………
that
..............................................................…………………….......
……………………………… that
..............................................................…………………….......
……………………………… that
..............................................................…………………….......
……………………………… that
..............................................................…………………….......
……………………………… that
..............................................................…………………….......
……………………………… that
..............................................................…………………….......
Some of your comments may involve
direct reporting rather than indirect reporting. For this use verbs
transitively, that is, give them a direct object.
What
difference in tone and inference do you see between these and the indirect reporting statements above?
describes (the
results) ................................................................
determines.
............................................................................
points out
.............................................................................
clarifies.................................................................................
challenges..............................................................................
questions...............................................................................
outlines.................................................................................
presents................................................................................
analyses................................................................................
Locate and identify in your own
readings as many verbs of direct and indirect reporting as you can.
Comparing and contrasting
It is part of the critiquing
process to assess and point out the similarities and differences that you have
discovered between writers in relation to theory, hypothesis, techniques,
results, equipment, research design and other features of research and
reporting. When you find commonality of experience, it is useful to be able to
show that a number of researchers have found the same thing. This adds
considerable strength and credibility to your reporting of the experience
itself. On the other hand, polarisations within your field are likely to be
based on differences in approach and experience amongst researchers. You can
use techniques of contrasting to explain the details and implications of any
such differences, as you will find in the following examples and planning
sheets.
The following is an extract from
the Review of literature chapter in the thesis of [2]
Nualnetr (1996):
Age-related
decreases in total number of muscle fibres were demonstrated in both type 1
(slow-twitch) and type 11 (fast twitch) fibres (Lexell et al 1983 and 1988).
However, a reduction in muscle fibre size with increasing age appears in type
11 muscle fibres, whilst type 1 fibres are much less affected (Essen-Gustavsson
and Borges 1986, Jakobsson et all 1990, Larsson et al 1978, Lexell and Taylor
1991, Scelsi et al 1980, Tomonaga 1977). After seven years of their
longitudinal study of older subjects, Aniansson et al (1986) showed 14 per cent
to 25 per cent reduction in the type 11 fibre area, and no significant change
in the type 1 fibre area. They also found that muscle strength losses were
accompanied by decreases in type 11 fibre area. It should be noted that the
muscle examined by the majority of these studies was the vastus lateralis. It
therefore remains to be determined whether the same changes in muscle
morphology occur in other muscles.
Below you will find some examples
of further commentary on the
situation described above by [3]Nualnetr
(1996).
Paraphrasing:
According
to a number of authors (Essen-Gustavsson and Borges 1986, Jakobsson et all
1990, Larsson et al 1978, Lexell and Taylor 1991, Scelsi et al 1980, Tomonaga
1977), the effect of ageing on type I muscle fibres is insignificant when
compared to the reduction in muscle size found occurring on type II fibres.
This is supported by the similar findings of Aniansson et al (1986).
Reporting:
Lexell
et al (1983 and 1988) amongst others, reports that (claims that, suggests that,
shows that ... etc) type I muscle fibres are less affected by ageing than are
type II fibres which show a comparatively significant reduction in muscle fibre
size with increasing age.
Quoting:
[4]Nualnetr
(1996) points out the gap between (or contrasts) what is widely known and what
is still conjecture in the physiology of ageing. Having described a number of
studies on age-related effects on muscle fibre, she warns:
It
should be noted that the muscle examined by the majority of these studies was
the vastus lateralis. It therefore remains to be determined whether the same
changes in muscle morphology occur in other muscles.
Note the use of words such as
'however', 'therefore' 'whilst' in the above passage. These and other connecting words and phrases such as
'but', 'because', 'whereas', 'on the other hand', 'by contrast', help to
indicate a change of direction of thought or opinion, and so can be used to
denote contrasting ideas. Words and phrases such as 'and', 'also', 'as well',
'in addition', 'moreover' are often used to move further in the same direction,
and implies similarity of feature or intent.
[5]Nualnetr
(1996) links the fact of age-related effects on muscle types by first showing
what the two muscles types have in common:
Age-related
decreases in total number of muscle fibres were demonstrated in both type 1
(slow-twitch) and type 11 (fast twitch) fibres (Lexell et al 1983 and 1988).
She goes on to contrast the
extent of age-related effects on each muscle type, thereby isolating and
highlighting the very feature on which the remainder of the paragraph is
focused.
However,
a reduction in muscle fibre size with increasing age appears in type 11 muscle
fibres, whilst type 1 fibres are much less affected (Essen-Gustavsson and
Borges 1986, Jakobsson et all 1990, Larsson et al 1978, Lexell and Taylor 1991,
Scelsi et al 1980, Tomonaga 1977).
[1] Nualnetr N (1996): The
effects of exercise on balance in older women: fallers and nonfallers, Unpublished
PhD thesis, School of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health and Biomedical Sciences,
University of South Australia.
[2] Nualnetr N (1996): The
effects of exercise on balance in older women: fallers and nonfallers, Unpublished
PhD thesis, School of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health and Biomedical Sciences,
University of South Australia.
[3] Nualnetr N (1996): The
effects of exercise on balance in older women: fallers and nonfallers, Unpublished
PhD thesis, School of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health and Biomedical Sciences,
University of South Australia.
[4] Nualnetr N (1996): The
effects of exercise on balance in older women: fallers and nonfallers, Unpublished
PhD thesis, School of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health and Biomedical Sciences,
University of South Australia.
[5] Nualnetr N (1996): The
effects of exercise on balance in older women: fallers and nonfallers, Unpublished
PhD thesis, School of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health and Biomedical Sciences,
University of South Australia.
No comments:
Post a Comment